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In catecholamine biosynthesis of brain and adrenal provides reducing equivalents for dopamine -hydroxylase in the conversion of dopamine to nor-epinephrine, and protects the brain against glutamate mediated excitotoxicity by decreasing the available amount of extracellular glutamate.It can interfere with glutamatergic, dopaminergic, cholinergic and GABAergic transmission and related behaviors

doi: 10.3389/fped.2026.1787946 Received 14 January 2026 Revised 02 March 2026 Accepted 06 March 2026 Published 24 March 2026 Volume 14 - 2026 Edited by Regina Flster-Holst, University Medical Center Schleswig-Holstein, Germany Reviewed by Sanjay Kumar, Govt Service, India Indrani Sarma, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Guwahati, India Updates Copyright 2026 Lu, Xia, Wang, Zou and Shen

However, metformin may also produce undesirable side effects, and exposure to metformin has been reported to be time- and dose-dependent, with chronic use resulting in adverse events such as increased cognitive impairment and vitamin B12 deficiency in patients with type 2 diabetes and increased lactate levels in mice and humans (de Jager et al., 2010

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Chron- ic exposure to interleukin-6 causes hepatic insulin resistance in mice

Tadayyon, A., Nikneshan, P